The ability to distinguish and memorise the items

Abstract The experiment seeks to measure the ability to distinguish and memorise the items one saw. There were sixty-seven participants all of them third year students who take the course Advance Topics in Cognition laboratory. Age and sex were not considered as variables and as such were ignored in the analysis of the results.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The ability to distinguish and memorise the items specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The experiment was to use simple objects that might confuse the participants and be tricky to remember (high in conceptual distinctiveness) and some that would be easier to remember (or low in conceptual distinctiveness). Participants would be presented with items and then they would be asked if they have seen the item before in the experiment (old item) or haven’t (new item). Introduction Human memory accesses or scans items in memory in a short-term old-new r ecognition memory task as proposed by Sternberg in the Sternberg paradigm. Different people scan their memory in different ways with different results with others being better than others in the scanning process (Sternberg, 1966). The participants were presented with list of items and they were to identify if the item presented was from a previously presented list or if it was a new item. This was to give a result and enable a probe on the habits of the human brain in analysis and scanning of items and memory of the same. The standard result having been declared by Stenberg, suggested that the mind scans all items in the mind to figure out whether the new item belongs to an old list of to a new list, hence, the more the items the more the response time needed to figure out. This is whether the target list is new or not. This leads to exhaustion of the brain a factor which further reduces the time needed to respond to the item. Limited capacity parallel access theory and familiarity- based decision making theory have similar results with Sternberg’s RT. The exhaustive search shows consistent results with the mean RT too. Limited capacity parallel access theory however differs in that it assumes that the items are accessed simultaneously but the memory comparison rate decreases as the set size increases. The simultaneous access causes the brain to reduce the effective time taken to compare the item with the items on the other lists.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, the familiarity-based decision making theory the participants compare the target item to a global composite of all the items in memory; if the familiarity or similarity of the target to this composite memory reaches some threshold then the participants will identify whether the item belongs to the old list or it belongs to the new list (Nosofsky, 2011). Should we obtain standard results in the experiment as of the above theories, it will indicate that the basic underlying architecture of memory access does not vary between the different item types (James, 2001). If the slope sizes are different then this means that accessing the different items has different â€Å"costs†, either in terms of the time necessary to scan each item (i.e., a serial exhaustive model account), the capacity limitation placed on the rate of processing (i.e., a parallel model account) or the rate at which memory for individual items decreases with an item’s lag or its position on the list (i.e., a familiarity-based account). Method Participants The total number of participants was 67, that is, all the 3rd year students enrolled in the Advanced Topics in Cognition Laboratory classes. Apparatus Participants were tested in groups on lab computers running a MATLAB-based experiment designed using the Psychophysics toolbox (Brainard, 1997; Pelli, 1991). Stimuli Objects used included items which were low in conceptual distinctiveness [earrings, fish hooks, salt pepper shakers, child sip cups, computer keys, jack-o-lanterns, keyboards, microwaves) or high in conceptual distinctiveness [car fronts, juices, mp3 players, road signs, bill money, cigarette packs, coins, muffins] or ProcedureAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The ability to distinguish and memorise the items specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The experiment started by displaying to the participants the various items of study. They were given 500ms to view the items and scan them in their memory. After that, they would be asked to present the items they had scanned (saw during the first procedure), for this they were given 1000ms with 200ms break after each presentation. The memory set was varying in a range of 1 to 5. After the final study item was presented to the participant, an asterisk was placed fo r 1000ms to signal that the next digit presented was the test probe . The item then had to remain on the screen until the participant made a response. This however was marked by as asterisk to indicate that more time was needed by the participant to identify the item. One was required to identify the item being presented to them if they had seen it before they would press the left button but if they think it was a new item then they would press the right button. Results There were 67 participants but only 53 tests were regarded for analysis. This is because 12 of the data files were lost due to the computer error and 2 of the participants results were cancelled after they were found to be less than the average accuracy of all participants 3 x the standard deviation minus. The major analysis was to focus on size 2 to 5 and as such we had trials which were had RT that were less that 200msec or greater than 3 x the std + the average of each of the investigated conditions. 1.24% of the trials were removed using this method. Within each set size, we then compute the median RT for each set size x condition (high v/s low conceptual distinctiveness) x probe (present v/s absent) condition. Set size 1 was excluded from further analysis due to a lack of meaningful RT differences between the probe present and probe absent trials. Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The High CD condition replicates the standard observed lag functions (e.g., Monsell, 1978) The Low CD condition does the same but there is a slight increase in RT for long lists at lags 2 and 3. Note that because the probe’s lag position was not controlled but was just randomly allocated from trial to trial, there are markedly fewer trials at this point (N ~= 85) than at other points (e.g., lag 1, set size 1, N ~= 400). Consequently, the observed lag effect is not significant. Presentation The questions in the questioner were open ended and difficult terms were defined to enhance the understanding of the questions. Simple and easy to conceptualize language was used in designing the questions. This was in a bid to enhance a clear understanding on the side of the respondent regardless of their literacy level. Data obtained from the report was presented in form of tables and graphs. This was done to enhance ease in understanding as well as conceptualization of the results obtain ed. Tables and graphs aided in the summarization of information since they presented them in the simplest form possible (Little, 2011). The briefing of results widened the scope of individuals able to access as well as understands the results. The complexity and tediousness that come with reading large volumes of text is thus reduced. A lot of information can hence be obtained by only a glance at the tables and graphs. Discussion If the experiment gets results that are not concordant with the Stenberg result then this would provide a strong evidence against the above three mentioned theories. The standard Sternberg result is unable to adjudicate between these theories. The slope of the set size function can still provide insight into how different types of stimuli are accessed or into how different clinical populations access items in memory (e.g., people with mental retardation have steeper set size slopes than people without mental retardation, Harris Fleer, 1974). This lab exper iment will focus on the former by comparing lists of items which are conceptually similar and lists of items which are conceptually distinct. In the present experiment, we compare old-new recognition performance for conceptually similar and conceptually distinctive items by using the Sternberg paradigm and varying a) the set size presented on each trial, b) whether the probe is present or absent on each trial and c) the category of items presented on each trial (i.e., either conceptually distinctive or conceptually similar items will be presented on each trial). We are specifically interested in whether a) both types of items result in the standard Sternberg result and b) whether the slope of the set size function is equivalent between both types of items. References Baym, V. (2008). Accurate forced-choice recognition without awareness of memory retrieval. Learning and memory , 454-459. Beins, B. (2004). Research Methods: a tool for life. Michigan: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Brandon, K. (2011). Electron Nursing Documentation as a Strategy to Improve Quality Care. Journal of Nursing scholarship , 154-162. Bruke, J. (2009). Report writing. New York: Cengage. Course, O. U. (2008). Thinking Critically. New York: Open University Worldwide. Covey, S. R. (2003). 7 Habits of Highly Influential People. New York: Hay House Incorporated. Daniel, P. (1991). Videotoolbox Software for visual psychophysics. Transforming numbers into movies , 437-442. Government, A. (2000, June 3). Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency Act 2011 . Retrieved from Comlaw: https://www.legislation.gov.au/ James, W. (2001). Psychology: The briefer Course. New York: Courier Dover Publications. James, W. (2007). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Cosimo. Johnson, T. (1971). A note on the identifiability of parallel and serial precessess. Perception Psychophysics , 161-163. Little, N. (2012). Activation in the nueral network responsible for categorization and reflection parameter. Procee dings of the national Assembly , 333-338. Little, N. (2011). Short-Term memory Scanning Viewed as Exemplar-Based Categorization. Psychological Review , 280-315. Myers, D. G. (2009). Psychology In Modules. New York: Worth Publishers. Nairnei, J. S. (2010). Psychology. Chicago: Cengage Learning. Nevid, J. S. (2007). Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Chicago: Cengage. Patrick Mcneill, S. C. (2009). Research Methods: Third Edition. Chicago: Cengage Learning. Phil, R. (2010). Experiment in Psychology. Chicago: Prentice Hall. Ruth, R. (1978). A theory of Memory Retrieval. Psychological Review , 50-108. Susan, S. (1966, August). High-speed scanning in human memory. Science , 652-654. Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations. Chicago: Cengage Learning. White, L. (2008). Foundations of Nursing. Chicago: Cengage Learning. William m., J. P. (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base. Chicago: Cengage. This research paper on The ability to distinguish and memorise the items was written and submitted by user Weston Greene to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

East Timor essays

East Timor essays East Timor is located on the small island of Timor (slightly smaller than Maryland). This land is situated between Indonesia and Australia. The other half of the island is Indonesias province of West Timor. This small territory of East Timor is currently under a U.N. transitional government with total sovereignty scheduled for 2002-2003. The past of East Timor has been littered with Imperialism. Starting mid 1500s when Portugal colonized the territory through Japanese occupation during WWII, and again a return to Portuguese rule. Then in the wake of Portuguese de-colonization and civil war, a brutal military occupation by its new neighbor Indonesia. In 1509 the Portuguese arrived in the area of East Timor. They established their first settlements there in 1633. During the time before 1859 these two colonial powers signed a treaty establishing a boundary that divided Timor into the Dutch controlled west and the Portuguese controlled east. During Portuguese control many members of the native population where enslaved. In 1910 a rebellion of native peoples was suppressed after an n 18-month war for independence. During WWII The Empire of Japan occupied the Island of Timor. The Japanese also occupied all of the surrounding islands of Indonesia. During the occupation there was brutal fighting and nearly 40,000 East Timorese where killed in the struggle. After Japanese forces withdrew at the end of the war, rebellion broke out in Indonesia and in east Timor. Indonesias revolt against the Dutch was extremely successful ending in Indonesias independence. While in east Timor the rebellion was quickly and brutally put down by the Portuguese military. The Portuguese would remain in control until 1975 (despite U.N. calls for self-determination) when Portugals government was overthrown by its own military, which began a process of de-colonization. It is during this time that...

Developing Yourself As A Supervisor Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Psychology Assessments - Reliability and Validity Essay

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The contribution of motherese or child-directed speech

The contribution of motherese or child-directed speech Language is the standard by which higher intellectual processes are revealed. It is important means of social communication and is one of the exceptional systems of habits which distinguish man from the animals. Differences in language account for many of the distinct contrasts between peoples, and to its deficiency may be attributed the differences between intellectual development. As preverbal infant it is important for caregivers to know how to acquire the fundamental aspects of language more efficiently. Motherese or child-directed speech (CDS) is a pattern of speech which is used for communication with preverbal children. Child-directed speech found to draw children attention more decently due to distinctive characteristics (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002; Bohannon Marquis, 1977; Fernald Mazzie, 1991; Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986; Masataka, 1998; ONeill, Bard, Linnel, Fluck, 2005; Rowe, Pan Coker, 2004; Sokol, Webster, Thompson Stevens, 2005; Tamis-LeMonda Borns tein, 1994). In this study we will investigate the aspects of child-directed speech and the contribution of it to infants language development. First, to describe CDS it is important to underline that for occurrence of CDS an infants or young childs presence is required. Adults, especially mothers, use this pattern of communication by adjusting, their linguistic and prosodic aspects of speech which construct the concept of motherese. Child-directed speech is distinctive by its slower production of utterances, and pitch contours are often pronounced more clearly and exaggerated (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002; Bohannon Marquis, 1977; Fernald Mazzie, 1991; Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986; Masataka, 1998; ONeill, Bard, Linnel, Fluck, 2005; Rowe, Pan Coker, 2004; Sokol, Webster, Thompson Stevens, 2005; Tamis-LeMonda Bornstein, 1994). Several studies indicate that prosodic features of child-directed speech are far more important than its syntactic or semantic features (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, studies show that the exaggerated prosody of CDS increases the salience of acoustic cues to linguistic structure for the preverbal infant (Fernald Mazzie, 1991). Additionally, the prosodic features of the maternal speech help infant to distinguish the identical syllables (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). The evidence show, that child-directed speech is characterized by perceptual features which are more attractive to children, although it is important to investigate the contribution of motherese on language development. The study of Greiser and Kuhl (1988) provide us with three general explanations of CDS to contribution to language development. Three major characteristics are described in a study of Greiser and Kuhl (1988) consistent of linguistic, attentional, and social/affective constructs. Linguistic explanation is characterized by expanded pitch contours which serve as indication of linguistic boundaries (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, by highlighting the linguistic boundaries make the language explanation more efficient (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). In several studies of syntax growth related to maternal speech, the most frequently appearing predictor of syntax growth is the occurrence in input of expansions, reacts, and other sorts of utterances that repeat some or all of the semantic content of the prior utterance while changing the syntactic form of expression (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986). In addition, positive effects have been found of mothers utterances that repeat part of the childs previous utterance and of utterances in which mothers or experimenters repeat part of their own previous utterance (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986).Natura listic and experimental studies have also found the occurrence of yes or no questions in input to be positively associated with measure of childrens syntax growth (Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986). The attentional characteristic of CDS contributes to the level of perceived language by the infant, and the level of prominence of perceived language respectively (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). By using high pitch contours combined with deep emotional expressions contribute to the level and prominence of perceived utterances (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Moreover, Sokol, et al. (2005) proposes that maternal speech patterns is more suitable for the infants immature auditory system. The study shows , that maternal pattern of speech is adjusting to infants auditory and cognitive abilities. By adjusting to infants auditory and cognitive abilities it is credible to draw and maintain infants attention. Social/affective characteristic of CDS contribute to infants language development by regulating infants affective state (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). In a study of Clarck (as cited in Sokol et al., 2005) suggest that salience regulation of infants affective state may sustain language learning at the early stages of development. The use of higher and expanded pitch contours allow mothers to assign important affective discriminative stimuli and information which will be identified by the infant as positive signals regulating the infants affective state (Greiser Kuhl, 1988; Sokol et al., 2005). Child-directed speech serves to adjust the affective states of the infant depending on whether the caregiver encouraging, soothing or just seeking to elicit the infants attention (Sokol et al., 2005). According to developmental psychologists nonlinguistic representations of the world contribute and constrain the structure of child language and the course of its development (Tamis-LeMonda Bornstein, 1994). What is more, when interacting with infants adults alter their movements in ways that increase infants attention to action and highlight meaningful units within the flow of motion (Brand, Baldwin Ashburn, 2002). Mothers shape their language-related gestures to infants, using fewer gestures over all, and more often gestures to reinforce or disambiguate the verbal message, rather than to add new information (Brand et al., 2002). Gestures associated with child-directed speech called motionese are likely to assist infants attention to action (Brand et al., 2002). Such reinforced attention should help infants to learn about action more readily (Brand et al., 2002). Studies show that mothers showed higher level of enthusiasm and interest in the object demonstrating to infants, which is considered reinforcing behavior for the baby (Brand et al., 2002). Additionally, increased gaze from mothers in mothers infant-directed action, help maintain infants attention and thus can benefit in language and cognitive development (Brand et al., 2002). Overall it is important to evaluate gestures as a part child-directed speech because of their attentional and linguistic contribution to infants development. Child-directed speech or motherese is a universal pattern of speech with preverbal children by caregivers independent of language (Greiser Kuhl, 1988). Some aspects of motherese as motionese could be found in different sign languages, whereas sign motherese shares analogous characteristics with maternal speech (Masataka, 1998). In her study Masataka (1998) found that hearing infants exposed to motherese sign language showed more interest and attraction then to adult sign language. This study support that, special properties evident in infant-directed speech may have universal attentional and affective significance (Masataka, 1998). In addition, it is important to investigate the importance of father talk to infants and their contribution to the language development. Several studies demonstrate the difference in the ways fathers talk to their preverbal infants (Rowe et al., 2004). Fathers in Western middle-class produce more directives, more wh-questions, and more frequent requests for clarification in talk with children, thus engaging children in more complex cognitive processes (Rowe et al., 2004).Fathers tend to use directives in their indirect form which may present cognitive/linguistic challenges in interpretation (Rowe et al., 2004). By addressing the wh-questions the conversation becoming more demanding and require child to respond non-imitatively and verbally (Rowe et al., 2004). Although there are only few studies on paternal talk to the infant it is clear that CDS of father contribute to the language development by putting the child in more complex linguistic and cognitive processes. Concluding it is important to underline aspects of motherese contributing to language development. Child-directed speech or motherese, play an important role in language development of an infant. Motherese prosodic characteristics influence directly the language development because of its slower and smooth production, higher and exaggerated pitch contours and sensitive pause distribution in utterances. Additionally, motherese influence the child affective and attentional states, which contributes indirectly to the language development. Although, there is a lot of evidence about child-directed speech positive qualities there should be more investigation about the contribution of child-directed speech to language development. Word Count: 1337

Fall of Rome - the militarys role :: Ancient Rome Roman History

Fall of Rome - the military's role The Military's Role in the Beginning of the End of Rome The fall of Rome occurred over many centuries and was caused by several factors including military decay, barbarian invasions, and the failure of the government to respond to these problems. While these problems existed to a greater of lesser degree, since the end of the 2nd century, their effects were accelerated by the reforms of the emperors Constantine and Diocletian. These reforms changed Roman life as well as the face of the Roman army, moving it away from its classical infantry-based structure to a more cavalry-based system. The army was reorganized into lightly armed troops called "limitanei" who defended the border, and large mobile armies composed of troops called "comitatenses". The border troops were given land to live on around forts they protected. This structure led to farming becoming the job of the border troops so that they could feed as well as protect those on the frontier. Over time, this in turn led to out of date weaponry and neglect in training. The weakness of these troops meant that more mobile troops were needed to compensate, and an easily penetrable border as a result of the weakness led to the need for highly efficient mobile armies. Since t he cavalry were the most mobile unit of the army, they began to be the favored military unit. With forces strung along the border and concentrated large mobile armies, an increased number of recruits were required; however, land owners were reluctant to let themselves or their kin be recruited because that left less workers for their farms. At the same time, the division of the empire into outer imperial provinces and inner provinces controlled by the Senate had its own effect. Since the armies largely remained in the outer imperial provinces, the people of the inner provinces were out of touch with the army and were no longer attracted to service, again reducing the available pool of recruits. One reason that many avoided Army service was because Roman citizenship was now offered freely, where in prior times military service had been a path to citizenship. The result was less manpower available for Rome. The Roman army was left with no choice but to recruit barbarians, who could in this way both find employment where they had no skills, and hope to obtain Roman citizenship.